Which statement about primary effects is true?

• A. They are the effects that occur after a hazard ends
• B. They are the effects that are predicted
• C. They are the effects directly caused by the hazard
• D. They are economic losses only

Answer: (C)

Primary effects are the immediate impacts produced directly by the hazard during its occurrence. They happen as the hazard acts: ground shaking can cause buildings to crack or collapse, lava flows burn or bury land, and an eruption can eject ash that immediately affects air quality and visibility. These effects are caused by the hazard itself, not by what happens later.

Saying primary effects are simply what was predicted isn’t accurate, because predictions refer to forecasts of what might occur, not the actual, immediate outcomes during the event. Saying they are economic losses only is also too narrow, since primary effects include physical damage and injuries, not just financial losses. Finally, stating they occur after a hazard ends is incorrect—primary effects happen during the hazard.